This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


JUN  9     1964 

RECT 

M.AV22 


JUL  28   194i 


BO 
.DEC10196J 


•5  J953 
APR  28  1958' 

f\  p  i  j  0  A 

UL.  i     f*  ^ 


MAR  2  5  1963 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L  1 

H\J 


A    STUDY    OF    49    FEMALE    CONVICTS 

BY 

LOUISE  E.  ORDAHL  AND  GEORGE  ORDAHL 


REPRINTED  FROM  THE  JOURNAL  OF  DELINQUENCY 
VOLUME  2,  NO.  6,  NOVEMBER  1917 
3  -7  <b  ^ 


MV 


A    STUDY    OF    49    FEMALE    CONVICTS 

LOUISE   E.    ORDAHL  AND  GEORGE  ORDAHL 

Sonoma  State  Home,  Eldridge,  California 

The  material  treated  in  this  study  was  gathered  during  the 
months  of  January  and  February  of  1915,  while  making  a  prelim- 
inary survey  of  the  population  of  the  Joliet  Penitentiary,  Joliet,  111. 
The  majority  of  the  cases  were  examined  by  L.  E.  Ordahl  and  a  sum- 
mary of  the  results  has  appeared  in  the  Institution  Quarterly.1 

The  study  includes  the  psychological  examination,  an  account 
of  the  prisoner's  life  as  volunteered  by  herself,  and  the  prison  rec- 
ords, together  with  the  account  of  the  prisoner's  behavior  while  in 
custody.  The  psychological  examination  was  made  by  the  use  of 
the  Faribault  revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  scale  of  intelligence,  by 
Dr.  Fred  Kuhlmann,  and  the  Stanford  revision  by  Dr.  L.  M.  Ter- 
man.  Of  the  first  named  revision  the  entire  scale  was  used  without 
modification,  excepting  that  for  the  year  fifteen  a  score  of  three 
was  allowed  for  each  of  the  tests  passed.  Tests  from  the  Stanford 
revision  included  all  those  of  the  scale  above  the  year  twelve,  and 
all  of  the  49  women  were  given  an  opportunity  to  pass  these  tests 
after  they  had  finished  with  the  twelfth  year  of  the  Faribault  re- 
vision. 

Forty-nine  of  the  fifty  prisoners  at  that  time  enrolled  in  the 
women's  department  of  the  penitentiary  were  examined.)  The  mat- 
ter of  coming  before  the  examiner  was  made  voluntary.  Some  of  the 
women  felt  sensitive  about  coming  up  for  examination  but  all  with 
the  exception  of  one  volunteered  and  gave  every  evidence  of  enjoy- 
ing the  experience  and  of  co-operating  fully  with  the  examiner  in 
performing  the  tests. 

The  ages  of  negro  and  white  women  are   given  separately  in/ 
Table  I. 

Some  of  the  data  concerning  the  prisoners  studied  are  given  in 
tabular  form  in  Tables  I,  II  and  III.  These  tables  contain  the  age,  the 
school  grade  the  prisoner  had  reached  on  leaving  school,  the  mental 
age  and  intelligence  quotient  according  to  the  Faribault  revision,  and 


1.     Institution   Quarterly,   Sept.   15,   1917.   p.  23. 

(331) 


332 


The  Journal  of  Delinquency 


TABLE  I.  CHRONOLOGICAL  AGES  OF  CASES. 

AGE  NEGRO 

15-20   years Q 

20-25    years 5 

25-30    years 7 

30-35   years 4 

35-40    years g 

40-45    years l._ 

45-50    years 2 

50-55    years Q 

55-60   years Q. 

60-65    years „  o 

Average  age 


WHITE      TOTAL 

-  2 HZH  8 

.  3 10 

.  5 9 

-  3 9 

.  4 5 

^  3 

1 


1. 


TABLE  II 


No.      Age 


..  1 
..  2 


MENTAL  STATUS  OF  26  FEMALE 

Faribault     Higher  tests 
Sch.      Revision  added          Devi- 

gr.     M.A.      I.i 


NEGRO  CONVICTS 


M.A.      I.Q.    ation      Crime 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 

24 
36 
36 
25 
24 
22 
37 
39 
28 
21 
41 
29 
26 
25 
31 
35 
26 
23 
30 
47 
49 
20 
34 
27 
30 
35 

0 
8 
4 
2 
5 
7 
8 
4 
4 
8 
1 
0 
8 
3 
4 
3 
1 
5 
3 
5 
5 
6 
2 
4 
7 
3 

9.0 
9.0 
9.0 
9.4 
10.0 
10.2 
10.2 
10.2 
10.4 
10.4 
10.4 
10.8 
10.8 
10.8 
10.8 
11.0 
11.2 
11.2 
11.2 
11.4 
11.4 
11.4 
11.4 
11.8 
12.4 
12.4 

/  .60  \ 

.60    \ 
.60    : 
.63 

.67 
.68 
.68 

^ 

w\ 

/.70  \ 

I-70  ! 

.72 
.72  1 
.72  i 
f  .72  ; 
.73 
•73. 

73  i 

LZll 
.76 
.76 
.76 
.76 
.79 
.83 

f 

10-4 

10-8 
11-0 
11-2 
11-6 
11-6 

12-0 
11-6 
12-2 
11-6 
12-0 
12-0 
12-3 
12-3 
12-0 
12-4 
12-8 

J65 

.68 
.69 
.70 
.72 
.72 

.75 
.72 
.76 
.72- 
.75 
.75 
.76 
.76 
.75 
.77 
.79 

-3 

-2 

-1 
-2 
0 
0 

2 
-1 
3 
-1 
-1 
-1 
0 
0 
-4 
-6 
-3 

burglary 
murder 
assault  to  murder 
burglary 
manslaughter 
burglary 
manslaughter 
larceny 
larceny 
murder 
robbery 
assault  to  murder 
murder 
manslaughter 
burglary-larceny 
murder 
manslaughter 
manslaughter 
robbery 
larceny 
murder 
murder 
murder 
larceny 
manslaughter 
murder 

o/  49  Female  Convicts 


the  same  data  for  the  results  obtained  with  the  higher  tests  of  the 
Stanford  revision  added. 

TABLE  III.  MENTAL  STATUS  OF  23  FEMALE  WHITE  CONVICTS 
Faribault      Higher  tests 


Sch. 

Revision 

added 

Devi- 

No. 

Age 

gr. 

M.A. 

I-Q. 

M.A. 

I.Q. 

ation 

Crime 

1 

40 

1 

7.4 

.50-' 

murder 

2 

19 

7 

9.8 

.65  ' 

larceny 

3 

31 

8 

10.2     / 

.68- 

larceny 

4 

27 

1 

10.2   / 

.68~ 

manslaughter 

5 

52 

1 

10-2 

.68  •-*- 

murder 

6 

30 

8 

10.2 

.68  — 

perjury 

7 

46 

5 

10.4" 

"TOr*"-* 

confidence   game 

8 

26 

6 

10.4 

.70  "" 

11-0 

.69 

-1 

larceny 

9 

37 

3 

10.4 

.70  ^ 

10-11 

.68 

-2 

assault  tp  murder 

10 

60 

3 

10.8 

.72-~ 

11-3 

.70 

-2 

manslaughter 

11 

60 

14 

11.0 

.73+ 

11-8 

.73 

0 

murder   (abortion) 

12 

34 

4 

11.0 

..73+ 

11-8 

;Z(L 

0 

murder 

13 

32 

7 

11.0 

.73-" 

12-6 

i78  > 

5 

rape 

14 

33 

3 

11.2 

\J&£ 

11-6 

.72 

-1 

kidnapping 

15 

42 

4 

11.4 

.76-^ 

robbery 

16 

35 

4 

11.4 

.76  ^\ 

murder 

17 

23 

8 

11.6 

.77^ 

12-6 

fc(lP 

1 

robbery 

18 

39 

7 

11.6 

.77^ 

12-11 

.81 

4 

rape 

19 

55 

8 

11.8 

.79^ 

12-2 

•76 

-3 

harboring  girls 

20 

29 

11 

12.0 

.80  -*"" 

13-0 

.81 

1 

confidence  game 

21 

22 

8 

13.8 

.92  — 

14-10 

.93 

1 

murder  (abortion) 

22 

44 

7 

13.8 

.92  ~ 

16-0 

1.00 

8 

murder 

23 

40 

12     i 

13.8 

<$2^~~ 

14-10 

.93 

1 

conspiracy 

The  accdmilan^Ing  chferts  represent  the  intelligence  level  of  the  4!) 
prisoners,  as  shown  by /intelligence  quotients.  Figure  1  shows  the 
graph  for  negro  womejll,  Figure  2  the  graph  for  white  women,  and 
Figure  3  for  negro  and/white  women  combined. 

Table  IV  is  malae  on  the  basis  of  the  prison  records  and 
the  prisoners'  own  statements.  So  far  as  could  be  judged  from  the 
prisoners'  reactions/  to  tests  involving  school  training  these  state- 
ments seemed  correct.  From  the  distribution  of  cases  among  the 
grades  it  may  bp  seen  that  only  20k  or  40  per  cent  have  passed  the 
fifth  grade,  and  on!y  3  or  6  per  cent  have  entered  high  school;  0 
or  18  per  cent  >have  entered  the  eighth  grade,  and  24  or  approximately 
50  per  cent  Xave  ^ft  school  before  reaching  the  fifth  grade.  Thus_ 


II 


\£> 


tfQ 


• 


' 


<\ 


334 


The  Journal  of  Delinquency 


7/7? 


vises 


BORDERLINE 


FEEBLE-MINOeO      '///. 


AVERA6E  NORMAL 


ZQ.   J55-60  jbO-fyS  .6S-JO  7O-757S-3O  BO-&S  &3-9O  3O-9S9S-/.oe>IMH.OSlOf-l.iO 

Fig.  1.    Intelligence  Classification  of  26  Negro  Female  Convicts. 


CXISfS 
10 


.60-65  AS-70  70-7S  7f-.8O  &O-.8S  SS^9O3O-.9S  .95-1.00  lOO/.OStOS-I.IO 

Fig.  2.     Intelligence  Classification  of  23  White  Female  Convicts 


rQ  .SO-AO  AO-&5  .65-70  7O-7J  Tf-AOJSO-.aS  .SS-.9O  .90-.9T  9S-I.OO  I.OO-IOS IOS-UO 

Fig.  3.     Intelligence  Classification  of  49  Female  Convicts,  26  Negro,  23  White. 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  336 

at  least  half  of  these  women  have  started  out  in  life  without  any 
appreciable  assistance  from  formal  school  training.  \ 

TABLE  IV.  FORMAL  EDUCATION.  SHOWING  SCHOOL  GRADES 
REACHED  AND  RANGE  OF  I.Q.  FOR  EACH  GRADE 

GRADE  COLORED  WHITE  TOTAL  I.Q.  RANGE 
0 „.. 2 0 2 60-.72 

I  2 3 5 SO-.74 

II  2 0 2 62-76 

III    4 3 7 -73-.S4 

IV 5 3. 8 66-.78 

V  _ 4 _1 5 70-.76 

VI    _ 1 1 2 70-.76 

VII  _2 4 6 61-.92 

VIII  4 5 9 60-.92 

IX    0 0 0 

X    0 0 0 

XI  0 1 1 60 

I 1 1  „ 0 1 1 92 

XIII  0 0 0 

XIV  0 1 1 73 

As  may  be  seen  from  following  the  range  of  intelligence  quotients 
in  the  last  column  the  correspondence  between  grade  of  intelligence 
and  school  attainments  is  only  very  general.  A  few  cases  of  middle 
grade  morons  have  reached  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  and  one 
case  has  completed  the  high  school  course.  JThe  completion  of  the 
grammar  grades  does  not  however  mean  very  much  unless  the  quality 
of  the  work  done  in  the  particular  school  is  known.  In  the  absence 
of  such  data  little  can  be  inferred  from  the  records  as  given.  The 
woman  who  has  completed  the  high-school  and  yet  attains  only  to 
the  I.  Q.  .73,  is  60  years  of  age  and  was  very  much  agitated  and  dis- 
turbed over  her  imprisonment  which  may  have  interfered  somewhat 
with  the  accurate  performance  of  some  of  the  tests.  But  judgment 
and  insight  were  so  much  below  normal  that  in  the  opinion  of  the 
examiner  this  subject  could  not,  even  under  most  favorable  circum- 
stances be  rated  higher  than  a  very  low  normal. 

In  another  article2  the  writers  have  found  that  male  delinquents 
have  not  received  the  normal  amount  of  education,  (1)  because  of 
lack  of  parental  control,  (2)  on  account  of  economic  and  social  con- 


2.     A  Study  of  Fifty-three  Male  Convicts.  Jour.  Delin.  1-1,  Mar.  1916.  p.  9. 


336  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

ditions,  (3)  because  of  peculiar  mental  constitution.  Of  the  49  women 
convicts  20  or  40  per  cent  give  every  evidence  of  not  attending  school 
-  longer  because  they  found  difficulty  in  doing  the  work  required  of 
jfchem;  25  or  51  per  cent  have  failed  to  receive  the  average  amount 
of  training  either  because  of  lack  of  parental  control  or  because  of 
economic  and  social  conditions;  4  or  8.1  per  cent  because  of  peculiar 
mental  traits  have  for  various  specific  reasons  given  discontinued 
their  schooling  either  before  completing  the  eighth  grade  or  the  high 
school.  One  of  these  however  has  completed  the  equivalent  of  the 
American  high  school.  Two  of  the  women  of  this  third  group  were 
evidently  insane. 

TESTS 

S  As  indicated  by  the  columns  headed  "Intelligence  Quotient '*  in 
(Tables  II  and  III  and  Fig.  3  the  general  intelligence  of  this  group 
\of  women  of  both  races  is  quite  low.  Just  how  many  of  them  shall 
be  designated  as  feeble-minded  depends  upon  what  is  accepted  as  the 
standard  of  normal  or  feeble  intelligence.  At  present  there  are  two 
points  on  the  scale  which  have  been  designated  as  the  dividing  line 
between  normal  and  feeble  mentality,  viz.  the  intelligence  quotient 
of  .70  and  the  intelligence  quotient  of  .753.  The  intelligence  quotient 
of  .70  has  been  quite  generally  accepted  as  the  line  below  which  all 
are  definitely  feeWe-minded.  Since  this  standard  is  admittedly  low 
the  standard  of  .75  intelligence  quotient  has  been  proposed  as  the 
dividing  line  between  feeble  and  borderline  intelligence.)  But  this 
standard  has  been  found  by  some  authorities  to  be  too  high.  In  fact 
it  appears  that  some  persons  testing  below  the  intelligence  quotient 
.75  are  nevertheless  normal.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  these  cases 
are  exceptions  and  the  reasons  for  the  low  intelligence  quotient  in 
conjunction  with  apparently  normal  intelligence  can  be  specifically 
defined  as  such,  if  the  examination  is  thoroughly  conducted.  In 
this  paper  tabulations  will  be  given  for  both  the  seventy  and  the 
seventy-five  intelligence  quotient  standard  and  these  standards  will 
be  referred  to  respectively  as  the  'lower"  and  the  'higher'  standard. 
Table  V  gives  the  classification  according  to  the  intelligence 


3.  Intelligence  quotient  is  found  by  dividing  the  mental  age  by  the 
chronological  age.  For  the  Faribault  revision  the  divisor  must  not  exceed 
IS;  for  the  Stanford  revision  it  must  not  exceed  16. 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  337 

quotient  as  suggested  by  Dr.  Terman,4  viz.  feeble-mindedness,  bor- 
derline, dullness,  normality,  superior  intelligence,  etc.  The  tabula- 
tions are  made  separately  and  combined  for  the  two  races  and  con- 
tain the  number  of  individuals  and  the  percentages  found  in  each 
group. 

TABLE  V.     CLASSIFICATION  BY  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS. 

Race        No.     Standard              P.M.  Bord               Dull  Av.  Nor.Sup.  Nor. 

No.  %        No.  %        No.  %     No.  %     No.  % 

Negro        26        Lower                    8  30.8    16    61.6        2    7.6        0000 

Higher                 19  73.0      5     19-2        2    7.6        00        00 

White        23         Lower                     6  26.0     13     56.5         1     4.3        3  13.0     0    0 

Higher                 14  60.8_  JL_2U__L-4«d-  --  3-410—0—0 


Both  49  Lower  14  28.5  29_&1  _3  6.J2__J_6.12  0  Q 

Higher  33  67.3  10  20.4  3  6.12  3  6.12  0  0 

Both*  49  Lower  18  36.7  26  53.0  2  4.10  3  6.12  0  0 

Higher  31  63.2  13  26.5  2  4.10  3  6-12  0  0 

*  Higher  tests  added. 

According  to  the  lower  standard  8  of  the  26  negro  women,  or 
30.8  per  cent  are  feeble-minded;  16,  or  6.6  per  cent  are  borderline 
and  2  or  7.6  per  cent  are  dull  normal.  Judged  according  to  the 
higher  stanHarcTl9  or~75~per  cent  are  feeble-minded,  5  or  19.2  per 
cent  are  borderline  and  2  or  7.6  per  cent  are  dull  normal. 

The  white  women  rank  slightly  higher.  According  to  the  lower 
standard  6  or  26  per  cent  are  feeble-minded,  13  or  56.5  per  cent  are 
borderline,  1  or  4.3  per  cent  dull  normal  and  3  or  13  per  cent  are 
average  normal.  Judged  by  the  higher  standard  14  or  60.8  per  cent 
are  feeble-minded,  5  or  21.7  per  cent  are  borderline,  1  or  4.3  per 
cent  are  dull  normal,  and  3  or  13  per  cent  are  average  normal. 

If  the  entire  number  of  prisoners  examined  be  considered  then 
14  or  28.5  per  cent  are  feeble-minded,  29  or  59.1  per  cent  are  border- 
line, 3  or  6.1  per  cent  are  dull  normal,  3  or  6.1  per  cent  are  average 
normal.  Judged  by  the  higher  standard  33  or  67.3  per  cent  are  feeble- 
minded, 10  or  20.4  per  cent  are  borderline,  3  or  6.12  per  cent  are 
dull  and  3  or  6.12  per  cent  are  average  normal. 

If  the  higher  tests  used  be  taken  into  consideration  then,  accord- 
ing to  the  lower  standard  18  or  36.7  per  cent  are  feeble-minded,  26 
or  53  per  cent  are  borderline,  2  or  4.1  per  cent  are  dull  normal,  3  o* 

4.     The   Measurement   of   Intelligence.     Boston,   1916.   p.   79. 


338  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

6.12  per  cent  are  average  normal.  Judged  by  the  higher  standard, 
31  or  63.2  per  cent  are  feeble-minded,  13  or  26.5  per  cent  are  border- 
line, 2  or  4.1  per  cent  are  dull  and  3  or  6.12  per  cent  are  average 
normal. 

In  general,  little  difference  results  from  the  use  of  the  higher 
tests.  They  serve  rather  to  throw  a  broader  light  on  the  individual's 
mentality  than  to  place  him  in  a  different  intellectual  level,  at  least 
when  the  subjects  are  of  no  higher  endowment  than  the  ones  here 
studied.  Only  29  of  the  49  cases  are  affected  by  their  application. 
Of  these,  9  show  a  difference  of  1  per  cent,  7  of  2  per  cent,  4  a  dif- 
ference of  4  per  cent  and  one  each  a  difference  of  5  per  cent,  6  per 
cent  and  7  per  cent.  The  average  amount  of  change  for  each  subject 
is  1  per  cent.  Seventeen  are  minus  differences  and  eight  are  plus 
differences.  In  only  eleven  cases  is  the  classification  affected.  Of 
these  5  are  changed  from  doubtful  to  feeble-minded,  3  from  feeble- 
minded to  borderline,  1  from  borderline  to  dull  normal,  and  2  from 
dull  normal  to  borderline. 

CRIMES 

The  crimes  committed  by  the  49  women  and  for  which  they  were 
sentenced  to  the  penitentiary  have  been  arranged  in  two  groups  in 
the  order  of  the  frequency  of  the  crime.  Group  I  includes  criminal 
acts  calculated  to  take  human  life.  Group  II  includes  criminal  acts 
committed  chiefly  against  property  or  to  gain  possession  of  money 
or  property. 

Twenty-six  or  53  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  prisoners  have 
committed  murder,  23  or  47  per  cent  have  committed  other  crimes, 
chiefly  against  property.  Of  the  negro  population  of  the  penitentiary 
16  or  61.5  per  cent  have  committed  murder  and  10  or  38.4  per  cent 
have  committed  other  crimes.  Of  the  white  population  43.4  per 
cent  have  committed  murder  and  56.5  per  cent  have  committed  other 
crimes. 

The  total  number  of  individuals  in  each  group  of  crimes  is  nearly 
equal.  There  are,  however,  more  negroes  in  the  first  group  and 
fewer  in  the  second.  The  crimes  committed  by  the  white  women 
cover  a  wider  range  than  those  of  the  negro  women.  No  negro  women 
appear  in  the  last  six  crimes  named  in  Group  II. 

The  mental  classification  of  the  negro  and  white  women  as  they 
appear  in  the  different  groups  is  given  in  Table  VII. 


A  Study  of  49  female  Convicts 


339 


TABLE  VI.     CLASSIFICATION  AND  FREQUENCY  OF  CRIMES. 

Group   I.     Crimes  against  human  life. 
Crime  No.  White  Negro 

Murder    15 7 8 

Manslaughter    8 2 6 

Assault  to   murder  3 1 2 

'Total    26 10 16 

Group   II.     Crimes  chiefly  against  property 
Crime  No.  White  Negro 


Larceny    7 3. 

Burglary  4 0. 

Robbery   4 2. 

Rape  (accessory) 2 2. 

Confidence  game  2 2. 

Harboring  girls  1 1. 


4 

4 

2 

0 

0 

0 

Kidnapping    1 1 0 

Conspiracy    1 1 0 

Perjury   1 1 0 

Total   : 23 13 10 

TABLE  VII.     PERCENTAGE  MENTAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NEGRO 
AND  WHITE  WOMEN  ACCORDING  TO  NATURE  OF  CRIME 


DULL  AV.  NOR.  SUP.  NOR. 
12.5  0  0 

12.5  0  0 

0  20  0 

0  20  0 

DULL  AV.  NOR.  SUP.  NOR. 

000 

000 

7.7  7.7  0 

7.7  7.7  0 


Group   I    (against  life)  P.M.  BORD 

Negro,    lower      standard  25               62.5 

Negro,    higher    standard  68              18.7 

White,    lower      standard  30              50 

White,    higher    standard  80               0 

Group  II  (against  property)  P.M.  BORD 

Negro,    lower      standard  40              60 

Negro,    higher    standard  80              20 

White,    lower      standard  23              61 

lite,    higher    standard  61              23- 

k 

It  may  be  seen  from  a  comparison  of  the  percentages  here 
n  that  there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  level  of  intelligence 
for  the  two  groups  ''according  to  crime."  If  any  thing  significant 
TsarTToe  concluded  from  so  small  a  number,  it  appears  that  the  group 
who  commit  murder  are  of.  jiomewhat-  higher  mentality  f.hfl.n.--*hA 
group  who  commit  other  crimes.  Combining  the  whites  and  the 
negroes,  for  the  higher  standard  91.3  per  cent  of  Group  II  are  either 
feeble-minded  or  borderline,  and  for  the  same  mental  level  in  Group 
I  only  84.2  per  cent  are  either  feeble-minded  or  borderline.  The 
number  of  dull  and  average  normal  in  Group  I  is  just  double  that  in 
Group  II. 


340  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

CAUSES 

The  causes  underlying  human  behavior  are  at  best  obscure,  but 
from  the  limited  study  that  could  be  given  individual  cases  it  appears 
that  very  few  of  the  prisoners  could  be  classed  as  inherently  anti- 
social or  criminal.  In  a  study  of  male  convicts  the  writer  has  found 
the  causes  of  criminal  behavior  to  be  (1)  feeble-mindedness,  (2) 
untoward  combination  of  circumstances,  (3)  peculiarity  of  mental 
constitution.5  The  causes  for  criminal  behavior  on  the  part  of  the 
women  represented  in  this  study  readily  fall  into  these  three  rubrics, 
with  the  possible  exceptions  of  two  cases  who  should  be  considered 
psychopathic,  and  two  cases  who  are  quite  apparently  insane.  The 
following  described  cases  are  illustrative  of  the  individuals  classed 
according  to  the  above  rubrics. 

Feeble-mindedness:  H.  S.  age  24,  mental  age  9,  I.  Q.  .60;  three 
times  in  House  of  Correction,  and  parole  defaulter,  committed  for 
larceny.  This  case  can  not  copy  a  diamond  from  sight,  defines  all 
words  in  terms  of  use,  and  shows  little  tendency  to  foresight.  She 
is  silly  and  fails  to  comprehend  the  seriousness  of  her  crime  or  to 
regard  her  present  imprisonment  as  a  disgrace.  Indications  are  that 
she  would  continue  in  the  same  habits  should  she  again  be  returned 
to  society. 

Untoward  combination  of  circumstances:  A.  S.,  age  22,  mental 
age  13.8,  I.  Q.  .92.  Crime,  murder.  A  girl  friend  had  died  from 
induced  abortion,  and  A.  S.  was  accused  and  convicted  of  the  crime. 
The  accused  claims,  however,  that  she  had  no  further  part  in  the 
matter  than  imparting  information  concerning  the  means  of  inducing 
abortion.  A.  S.  is  a  girl  of  good  average  intelligence,  energetic, 
highly  capable,  and  of  that  wholesome  congenial  type  calculated  to 
live  a  life  of  activity.  Her  environment  was  isolated  and  lacking  in 
opportunities  for  social  recreation  and  self-expression.  In  this  situ- 
ation she  has  fallen  into  habits  which  made  her  acquainted  with  the 
methods  of  inducing  abortion.  Indications  are  that  .she  was  not 
aware  of  the  serious  nature  of  such  a  crime  and  that  she  was  inter- 
ested only  in  assisting  her  friend  to  escape  social  disgrace. 

Peculiar  mental  constitution :  M.  S.,  age  44,  mental  age  13.8, 
T.  Q.  .92.  Crime,  murder.  This  case  is  generally  recognized  by 


5.    A    Study    of    Fifty-three    Male    Convicts.    Jour.    Delinq.     1-1,    Mar, 
1916.  p.  13. 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  341 

associates  to  be  peculiar.  She  is  conceited  to  an  abnormal  degree, 
forward,  and  lacking  in  the  social  graces.  She  is  insensitive  herself 
and  behaves  with  utter  disregard  of  others,  and  does  not  regard  her 
crime  as  a  disgrace  in  spite  of  the  fact  she  has  four  children  who  are 
much  in  need  of  a  mother's  care.  The  crime  was  prompted  from 
a  selfish  motive  and  without  regard  for  her  children.  The  mental 
peculiarity  noted  in  this  woman  comes  out  in  one  of  her  children, 
which  the  writer  later  had  the  opportunity  of  examining,  as  feeble- 
mindedness. 

Nineteen  of  the  49  female  convicts  have,  according  to  the  above 
mentioned  classification,  committed  crime  because  they  were  feeble- 
minded, 24  because  of  untoward  combination  of  circumstances,  4 
because  of  peculiar  mental  traits,  2  because  of  insanity. 

In  not  a  few  cases,  there  was  some  doubt  whether  the  individual 
should  be  placed  in  the  first  or  the  second  class.  In  these  cases 
t'eeble-mindedness  was  involved  along  with  a  combination  of  circum- 
stances to  such  a  degree  that  it  was  difficult  to  determine  to  which 
of  these  causes  the  criminal  behavior  was  due.  In  general  if  the  indi- 
vidual were  feeble-minded  and  the  attendant  circumstances  of  the 
crime  were  not  such  as  to  place  in  doubt  the  behavior  of  a  normal 
person  under  similar  conditions,  the  case  was  classed  in  the  first 
named  group.  If  on  the  other  hand  the  circumstances  of  the  indi- 
vidual's life  seemed  to  be  such  that  habits  and  behavior  established 
were  especially  favorable  for  the  commission  of  the  crime  in  which 
she  was  involved,  the  case  was  placed  in  the  second  named  group, 
even  if  the  individual  were  feeble-minded. 

The  above  suggested  classification  of  causes  is  based  on  mental 
condition  either  native  or  acquired  and  upon  circumstances  either 
remote  or  immediate  which  tend  to  predispose  the  individual  to 
delinquent  behavior.  There  are,  however,  certain  '  immediate  or 
secondary  causes  which  lead  to  crime  that  are  significant.  It  has 
been  stated  that  none  of  the  women,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
one,  was  found  to  be  inherently  anti-social,  and  this  appears  true 
from  whatever  point  of  view  the  delinquent  behavior  is  approached. 
In  a  detailed  study  of  the  life  histories  of  the  subjects,  a  safe  majority 
of  those  classed  in  Group  II  are  followers  rather  than  instigators  and 
leaders  in  crime.  They  are  i.e.,  criminals  by  persuasion  rather  than 
by  nature.  As  illustration,  one  woman  committed  perjury  because 
induced  to  do  so  by  other  parties  in  whom  she  was  interested.  ATI- 


342  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

other  woman  lived  a  respectable  life  until  after  her  marriage  when 
she  was  persuaded  by  her  husband  to  become  a  petty  thief. 

In  the  murder  cases  the  situation  is  somewhat  different.  In 
22  out  of  the  26  cases  (15  negroes  and  7  whites)  there  is  a  romance 
involved  and  a  man  or  woman  has  been  killed  because  of  jealousy 
or  thwarted  love.  The  act  of  killing  is  not  premeditated  but  is  the 
result  of  momentary  impulse.  In  these  romance  murders  the  negroes 
appear  more  frequently  than  do  the  white  women.  Fifteen  of  the 
16  murders  committed  by  the  negroes  are  sex  murders  and  only  6 
of  the  10  murders  committed  by  the  white  women  are  for  the  same 
cause.  On  the  whole,  however,  race  differences  do  not  appear  to 
be  pronounced.  Such  differences  as  exist  are  due  rather  to  degree 
of  intelligence  than  to  perceptible  race  traits.  The  negro  is  appar- 
ently more  emotional  and  more  inclined  to  impulsive  behavior  and 
there  is  some  indication  that  the  sex  impulse  is  more  active.  How- 
ever the  element  of  low  intelligence  enters  into  such  an  extent  that 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  delinquent  behavior  is  due  to  the 
strength  of  native  impulsive  reactions,  or  to  lack  of  sufficient  intelli- 
gence to  establish  adequate  control.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer 
lack  of  intelligence  is  a  more  dominant  factor  than  strength  of  native 
impulse. 

In  the  matter  of  immediate  cause  of  criminal  behavior  data  are 
not  conclusive.  Such  conclusions  as  are  here  drawn  are  based  on 
incidental  remarks  of  the  individual  and  on  scraps  of  comversation 
provoked  by  the  tests  or  from  meeting  the  prisoner  socially.  Often 
the  most  valuable  data  came  in  this  way  when  the  individuals  were 
off  guard  and  more  natural  in  their  reactions  than  they  would  be 
if  asked  directly  to  explain  the  situation  leading  to  their  delin- 
quency. In  the  light  of  such  data  as  these  and  verified  in  part  by  the 
prison  records  which  showed  the  prisoners  to  be  "accessory"  to 
crime,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that,  in  87  per  cent  of  the  cases 
the  murders  were  committed  in  a  moment  of  emotional  excitement, 
the  emotion  being  excited  by  sex  attraction.  All  other  crimes  are 
in  the  majority  of  cases  committed  through  the  influence  of  others 
who  are  leaders  in  the  crime. 

Inasmuch  as  there  are  only  50  women  in  the  state  penitentiary 
it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  small  number  constitutes  a 
selected  group  of  a  larger  number  of  female  delinquents  not  ordi- 
narily committed  to  a  state  penitentiary.  It  should  therefore  be 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  343 

understood  that  the  data  here  presented  and  the  conclusions  drawn 
are  for  the  women  committed  to  this  particular  penitentiary  at  this 
particular  time  and  not  for  the  whole  class  of  delinquent  women 
who  may  be  found  at  large  or  in  other  institutions. 

Eighteen  or  36.7  per  cent  of  the  49  women  had  previous  to  their 
present  commitment  served  terms  either  in  jail  or  in  the  penitentiary, 
as  indicated  in  Table  VIII.  The  column  headed  ' '  Crime ' '  indicates  the 
offense  for  which  the  subject  is  now  serving  sentence.  The  number 
of  cases  serving  terms  either  in  jail  or  in  the  penitentiary  is  indi- 
cated by  the  distribution  in  the  table.  From  this  distribution  it 
appears  that  two-thirds  of  the  recidivists  have  served  terms  in  jail 
and  one-third  have  previously  served  terms  in  the  penitentiary. 

TABLE  VIII.     PREVIOUS  TERMS  SERVED.     TOTAL  18  PERSONS. 

Crime  In  Jail  In  Penitentiary 

1234  1234 

Murder  1  1 

Confidence  game  1  1 

Robbery  2 

Burglary  1 

Kidnapping  1 

Larceny  31  2 

Assault  to  murder       1 
Manslaughter       3 

Total  3630  0411 

In  the  case  of  recidivists  it  might  be  expected  that  certain 
inherent  traits  were  at  bottom  the  cause  of  their  persistent  delin- 
quency. The  group  of  recidivists  here  presented,  however,  gave  no 
indication  of  inherent  anti-social  tendencies.  Their  general  mental 
level  was  too  low  for  classification  among  the  ranks  of  intellectually 
capable  criminals  and  their  sympathetic  attitude  and  good  intentions 
would  exclude  them  from  the  class  of  so-called  moral  delinquents. 
All  are  below  the  mental  age  of  12;  six  are  below  the  I.  Q.  .70,  eight 
are  between  the  intelligent  quotients  .70  and  .75,  one  has  an  intelli- 
gence quotient  of  .76  and  one  an  intelligence  quotient  of  .80.  Thus 
all  but  one  are  either  feeble-minded  or  borderline,  and  this  one 
is  barely  on  the  line  between  borderline  and  dull  normal.  The 
accepted  definition  of  this  class  of  persons  would  preclude  any 


344  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

further  consideration  of  the  causes  of  their  delinquency,  unless  the 
attendant  circumstances  of  their  acts  were  markedly  accidental,  or 
unless  peculiarities  or  traits  calculated  to  lead  to  disregard  of  con- 
ventions were  present.  Such  traits  might  be  said  to  be  present  in 
three  of  the  eighteen  prisoners,  although  in  each  of  these  cases  the 
mentality  was  low.  One  a  mental  7.4  was  insane,  one  a  mental  11 
was  markedly  peculiar,  and  one  somewhat  peculiar  was  suspected  of 
being  a  drug  fiend.  The  remaining  individuals  presented  no  striking 
deviations  aside  from  low  grade  intelligence  and  lack  of  training. 

MORAL  JUDGMENT 

Tests  of  moral  judgment  have  thus  far  not  proven  very  suc- 
cessful. Owing  however  to  certain  criticisms  advanced  on  the  prob- 
able efficiency  of  the  intelligence  tests  used,  the  examiners  of  this 
group  of  women  introduced  two  problems  calculated  to  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  expressing  moral  judgment.  Attempt  was  made  to  make 
the  problem  sufficiently  simple  to  fall  within  the  comprehension  of 
all  the  prisoners  and  yet  interesting  enough  to  appeal  to  them  as  a 
problem.  The  problems  were  as  follows: 

I.  Some  people  think  it  is  as  bad  to  steal  a  little  thing  as  to 
steal  a  big  thing,  e.  g.,  it  is  as  bad  to  steal  a  pin  as  to  steal  $5.00. 
What  do  you  think  about  it? 

II.  Suppose  a  man  committed  a  crime;  he  is  the  father  of  four 
children  and  the   children   are   absolutely   dependent  upon   him  for 
a  living.     An  innocent  man — a  friend — is  up  for  trial  for  the  crime. 
On  account  of  the  other  man's  family  the  innocent  man  pleads  guilty 
and  is  convicted.     Was  that  right  or  wrong?     If  the  answer  "He 
did  right"  was  given  the  examiner  would  say,  ''But  that  would  be 
telling  a  lie."    This  would  usually  bring  out  what  the  subject  thought 
if  he  seemed  to  think  at  all. 

These  problems  were  submitted  to  18  negroes  and  19  wii*^ 
women.  To  "I"  the  negro  women  gave  uniformly  similar  answers. 
They  replied  with  very  little  thought  or  consideration:  "Stealing  is 
stealing,  one  is  as  bad  as  the  other."  One  only  declared,  "It  is  not 
a  sin  to  steal  a  pin,  because  no  one  cares  for  a  pin." 

Thirteen  of  the  white  women  gave  answers  which  indicated  that 
they  considered  the  act  of  stealing  to  be  independent  of  the  value  of 
the  article  stolen.  Some  of  these  women  were  inclined  to  discuss  the 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  345 

problem  at  length.  Six  declared  it  to  be  as  great  a  sin  to  steal  a  pin 
since  such  an  act  would  lead  the  individual  to  commit  greater  thefts. 
Six  others  of  the  19  thought  it  a  greater  crime  to  steal  $5.00  since 
the  value  was  greater.  A  number  also  volunteered  the  opinion  that 
the  penalty  should  be  less  for  stealing  an  article  of  small  value  thai, 
for  stealing  an  article  of  greater  value. 

On  Problem  II  the  18  colored  women  divided  equally.  Nine  de- 
clared the  innocent  man  did  wrong  to  plead  guilty,  and  nine  thought 
the  act  highly  commendable.  The  prevailing  answer  given  by  those 
who  disapproved  of  the  act  of  the  innocent  man  was  that  ' '  every  one 
should  suffer  for  his  own  faults."  A  few  added,  in  substance,  that  it 
was  not  right  for  a  man  to  incriminate  himself.  The  nine  women 
who  approved  of  the  innocent  man  pleading  guilty  thought  the  act 
commendable  "because  he  was  helping  a  friend."  The  replies  were 
in  general  characterized  by  the  following:  "He  did  the  right  thing 
because  he  was  helping  a  friend."  "It  is  a  very  brave  act.  He  was 
helping  someone  who  needed  help." 

The  white  women  entered  into  discussion  somewhat  more  fully, 
although  they  were  quite  as  much  divided  as  were  the  negroes.  Sever: 
of  the  19  women  thought  unfavorably  of  the  sacrifice,  and  twelve 
regarded  the  act  with  favor.  Four  explained  that  the  innocent  mai 
did  right  but  that  they  themselves  would  not  like  to  do  it.  Six  ex 
plained  that  lies  were  justifiable  under  such  circumstances,  that  ; 
lie  depended  upon  the  intention  of  the  agent.  They  did  not,  however 
take  into  account  the  condition  of  the  children. 

In  regard  to  the  answers  given  in  "I"  there  is  little  to  conclude 
The  negro  women  failed  to  see  any  problem  at  all.  The  white  womei 
appeared  to  find  a  moral  situation  but  handled  it  badly.  In  Problem 
II  the  negroes  do  not  get  beyond  the  consideration  of  friendship.  Tht 
white  women  appreciate  the  situation  to  a  slightly  greater  degre- 
since  they  attempt  to  justify  and  to  explain  an  uncommon  act 
on  the  grounds  of  its  merits.  They  fail,  however,  to  take  into  consid 
eration  the  object  or  persons  for  which  the  act  was  performed  am1 
to  this  extent  have  failed  in  moral  judgment. 

While  in  no  case  is  there  any  evidence  of  grasping  an  abstrac< 
notion,  nevertheless  some  of  the  answers  are  of  a  higher  order  tha 
others  and  seem  to  involve  a  more   complex  mental  process.     Tl" 


346  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

higher  type  answers  are  more  frequently  found  in  the  replies  to  Prob- 
lem II  designated  favorable.  There  is  also  a  general  correspondent?' 
between  the  higher  intelligence  quotients  and  the  affirmative  answers 
as  appears  in  the  following  tabulation: 

Replies  of  Negro  Women  to  Moral  Problem  II. 
Individual  intelligence  quotients: 

Unfavorable   60,  62,  66,  68,  68,  70,  72,  72,  74 

Favorable  _ 72,  74,  74,  76,  76,  76,  78,  82,  84 

Replies  of  Wmte  Women  to  Moral  Problem  II. 
Individual  intelligence  quotients: 

Unfavorable 68,  70,  70,  72,  73,  74,  92 

Favorable  61,  70,  74,  74,  76,  76,  77,  77,  78,  80,  92,  92 

If  the  differences  in  general  intelligence  as  indicated  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  intelligence  quotients  following  the  unfavorable  and 
favorable  replies  can  be  taken  as  significant,  it  would  appear  that  the 
test  as  given  is  one  of  intelligence  rather  than  one  of  moral  judgment 

OCCUPATIONS  AND  PAROLE 

In  the  matter  of  regulating  parole  several  factors  enter,  among 
which  are  occupation,  capability,  moral  character,  and  intellectual 
capacity.  The  previous  activities  of  the  49  women  were  distributee1 
among  various  occupations  as  follows:  housework  41,  factory  2 
laundry  1,  waitress  1,  designer  1,  cook  1,  farm  1,  singer  1.  Efficiency 
in  these  relatively  unskilled  occupations  would  insure  the  individua 
a  reasonable  living  wage  but  judging  from  the  quality  of  work  dom 
by  the  individuals  as  seen  in  the  prison  they  could  not  have  been  ver; 
efficient  in  their  occupations  prior  to  their  commitment. 

Moral  character  is  in  part  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  individ 
ual  is  a  prisoner.    But  the  condition  of  being  convicted  of  crime  does 
not  preclude  the  individual  from  consideration  as  a  moral  being.    Par- 
ticipation in  crime  does  not  depend  fundamentally  upon  the  morality 
of  the  individual.     Some  of  the  prisoners  appear  to  maintain  certai 
standards  of  morality  in  spite  of  their  criminal  behavior.  Prison  record- 
show  38  women  to  have  good  or  fair  habits  and  11  to  have  bad  habits : 
45  are  credited  with  having  good  dispositions,  and  4  are  said  to  b 
difficult  to  manage.    Histories  and  individual  stories  show  13  of  the 
white  women  to  have  been  immoral  sexually;  however,  only  one  of 
these  was  actively  engaged  in  prostitution.    The  other  12  have  been  im- 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  347 

moral  through  associations  and  have  not  become  prostitutes.    In  regard 
t-o  the  negroes  the  matter  of  sex  morality  is  more  difficult  to  determine ; 
there  is  however  no  evidence   of  prostitution  among  them,   but  o 
the  other  hand  it  seems  probable  that  they  have  been  as  moral  as  othe^ 
women  of  their  class  and  station  in  life.    In  regard  to  the  white  women 
besides  the  13  mentioned  above,  one  was  guilty  of  practicing  crimmu, 
abortion,  2  were  accessory  to  rape,  and  one  of  harboring  girls,    t'ron 
tne  standpoint  of  society    these  four  women  are  guilty  of  crimm<t 
and  highly  reprehensible  behavior.     But  it  is  doubtful  if  these  saw 
women  have  considered  their  behavior  as  at  all  criminal.    In  discussint 
the  matter  they  experience  great  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  socia 
attitude  and  regard  it  as  unreasonable.     They  argue  that  they  ar, 
no  more  guilty  than  many  other  people  doing  the  .same  thing  unmc 
lested  by  the  authorities.    People,  they  maintain,  come  to  their  house 
of  their  own  free  will  and  depart  unmolested.    One  woman  was  ver. 
proud  of  the  clean  and  hygienic  condition  in  which  she  kept  her  house 
Another  favorite  argument  is,  that  since  traffic  in  sex  is  bound  to  g 
on  why  should  not  they  as  well  as  others  profit  by  its  existence.     L 
the  case  of  the  abortionist  the  prisoner  claimed  that  the  practice  wa 
very  general,  that  the  persons  instrumental  in  her  arrest  were  them 
selves  abortionists,  and  that  she  was  at  best  extending  charity  to  pe; 
sons  in  trouble.     A  further  study  of  such  cases  would  undoubted! 
yield  valuable  psychological  data  for  the  sociologist.    But  so  much  aa 
is  given  here  is  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  attitude  into  which  the: 
people  have  drifted.    In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  they  were  expressu 
their  honest  convictions.    In  two  cases  it  is  quite  certain  the  wome 
themselves  have  not  been  immoral.    In  the  other  two  cases  there  is  su> 
picion  but  no  certainty  of  their  immorality. 

While  therefore  the  moral  tone  of  this  group  of  women  is  not  ave> 
age  it  would  probably  condition  their  parole  to  no  greater  extent  tha. 
their  degree  of  general  intelligence. 

Thirty-six  of  the  women  are  married,  2  are  divorced,  1  widowed 
and  10  are  unmarried.     Fifty-nine  children  have  been  born  to  19  o 
the  married  women.     The  highest  number  of  children  belonging  t^ 
one  woman  is  13.    The  majority  of  these  mothers  are  much  attache 
to  their  children  and  suffer  from  being  separated  from  them.  How  mucJ 
they  are  affected  from  the  inhibition  of  the  maternal  instinct   mav 
be  indicated  from  the  pleasure  they  derive  from  the  possession   o 
dolls.     In  the   year   1915   the  prison  management   arranged   for   th 


348  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

women  prisoners  to  receive  dolls  as  Christmas  presents.  Although 
these  women  were  on  the  average  over  30  years  of  age,  they  prized  thit 
gift  above  all  others  and  continued  to  take  great  pleasure  from  dress 
ing,  undressing  and  playing  with  these  dolls. 

The  presence  of  children  complicates  the  question  of  parole.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  deny  to  these  women  the  possession  or  association 
of  their  children  and  yet  it  would  not  ordinarily  be  well  for  the  pris 
oner  to  return  to  his  old  environment,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  not  fi; 
that  the  mother  should  have  charge  of  her  children. 

Long  imprisonment  stimulates  the  tendency   to   mate   and  sue] 
women  as  do  not  have  husbands  awaiting  them  on  their  return  fror; 
prison  soon  find  mates  and  are  married.     In  this  manner  after-care 
is  again  complicated.     The  effectiveness  of  their  prison  training  wi 
depend  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  men  they  marry.    A  unio] 
effected  as  hastily  as  are  some  of  these  is  more  than  likely  to  be  a 
unhappy  one  and  to  prove  unfavorable  to  the  efforts  of  the  parol 
authorities. 

With  industrial  and  economic  efficiency  limited  and  social  stan- 
dards low,  the  problem  of  dealing  with  this  class  of  persons  become 
increasingly  difficult.     With  an  average  chronological  age  of  thirty 
the  situation  is  no  longer  that  of  the  juvenile  delinquent.     Most  o 
the  women  are  past  the  age  when  real  reform  or  re-education  can  b 
very  effective.    The  majority  of  the  recidivists  have  formed  unfavor- 
able habits  which  leaves  little  hope  for  moral  improvement.    The  indi- 
viduals who  are  sentenced  for  the  first  time  and  who  are  criminals 
by  accident  rather  than  by  nature  present  a  more  hopeful  aspect.    How 
ever  even  here  lack  of  intelligence  is  a  great  handicap.    At  least  7" 
per  cent  or  80  per  cent  of  these  persons  must  always  work  under  direc- 
tion.   Their  intelligence  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  pursue  a1 
independent  existence  in  the  industrial  world.    The  prison  management 
of  the  Joliet  penitentiary  had  planned  and  put  into  effect  a  course  of 
domestic  science,  and  the  women  were  being  taught  general  house- 
work, cooking,  dressmaking,  and  laundry.     This  was  a  great  achieve- 
ment and  no  doubt  the  best  thing  that  could  be  done  for  the  women, 
and  yet  when  the  low  intellectual  level  of  the  prisoners  is  taken  into 
consideration,  it  becomes  clear  that  these  individual  women  could  not 
go  out  and  command  first  rate  positions  in  any  of  these  occupations. 
They  can  learn  to  do  fairly  good  work,  but  not  high  grade.    Whatever 


A  Siudy  of  49  Female  Convicts  349 

they  do  must  be  done  under  supervision  and  hence  they  could  become 
domestics  in  a  private  home  or  assistants  in  dressmakig  or  cooking,  but 
could  not  take  an  independent  lead  in  any  of  these  occupations. 

For  this  class  of  persons  punishment  by  confinement  in  prison  has 
not  proven  effective,  at  least  not  beyond  a  certain  limited  time  indi- 
cated by  the  behavior  of  the  individual.  For  the  definitely  feeble- 
minded there  should  be  no  prison  sentence  at  all.  The  court  should 
have  the  power  to  commit  them  to  the  care  of  institutions  for  the 
feeble-minded  or  to  institutions  for  the  defective  incorrigible.  For 
the  higher  grade  defective  or  the  very  low  grade  normal  where  prison 
sentence  seems  advisable  there  should  be  a  system  of  parole  whereby 
the  individual  on  leaving  prison  could  work  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  parole  department  of  the  prison  management.  Some  such 
a  system  as  that  now  in  practice  by  the  State  School  for  Feeble-minded, 
Rome,  N.  Y.6  whereby  they  maintain  homes  in  the  city,  accommodat- 
ing twenty  girls  each,  under  the  direction  of  a  social  worker  and  a 
matron,  might  be  adopted.  The  girls  go  out  to  work  during  the  day 
and  return  to  the  homes  for  the  night.  After  a  time  depending  upon 
behavior  and  the  quality  of  work  done  the  girl  may  be  allowed  to 
remain  with  the  private  family  for  whom  she  works,  and  in  this  way 
a  number  are  permanently  paroled  or  discharged,  while  others  remain 
permanent  wards  of  the  state.  A  large  number  of  the  women  found 
in  the  prison  are  approximately  of  the  same  grade  of  intelligence  as 
that  of  the  girls  with  which  this  form  of  colonization  has  proven  suc- 
cessful, and  it  would  seem  reasonable  to  suppose  a  number  of  these 
delinquent  women  might  be  similarly  handled,  with  much  greater 
economy  and  advantage  to  society.  Other  advantages  would  be  cer- 
tain to  accrue  from  such  a  system.  More  women  who  are  delinquent 
would  be  found  guilty  by  the  jury  and  convicted  by  the  court.  At 
present  men  are  prejudiced  against  sending  women  to  prison.  In  the 
large  state  of  Illinois  there  were  only  50  women  in  the  state  peniten- 
tiary as  against  some  1800  men.  Just  why  the  other  women  who  are 
delinquent  have  not  been  committed  is  a  matter  of  speculation.  As  a 
matter  of  common  observation,  however,  the  women  in  the  peniten- 
tiaries are  not  particularly  attractive.  This  fact  together  with  the 
evidence  from  this  study  that  they  are  not  even  of  average  normal 

6.  Twenty-second   annual   report   Rome   State    Custodial   Asylum,    Rome, 
N.  Y.,  pp.  20-22. 


350  The  Journal  of  Delinquency 

intelligence,  would  suggest  that  the  brighter  and  more  attractive 
women  are  able  by  virtue  of  working  on  the  sympathies  of  the  court 
and  society  to  keep  out  of  the  penitentiaries.  Such  influence  as  this 
would  not  readily  be  effective  however  if  it  were  generally  known  that 
prisons  were  institutions  particularly  designed  and  highly  equipped 
to  reform  and  educate  rather  than  to  punish.  If  a  body  of  individuals 
having  to  do  with  the  administration  of  justice  were  convinced  that 
the  guilty  party  would  have  every  opportunity  to  regain  her  freedom 
at  the  earliest  possible  date  dependent  only  upon  her  capacity  for 
becoming  morally  and  economically  efficient  they  would  prefer  to 
commit  women  rather  than  to  return  them  to  society  unprotected 
where  they  would  be  exposed  to  former  evil  influences. 

Not  all  women  committed  would  be  eligible  for  parole,  or  the 
sort  of  treatment  here  suggested.  Eligibility  would  depend  upon  the 
consideration  of  many  factors,  such  as  educability,  morals,  particular 
traits,  previous  associates,  and  disposition.  Each  individual  should 
be  studied  and  passed  upon  by  persons  skilled  and  practiced  in  the 
science  of  human  behavior.  Treatment  and  parole  would  naturally 
rest  with  the  prison  management  and  should  be  based  upon  the  com- 
bined evidence  from  different  departments  and  a  person  skilled  in 
psychological  interpretations  of  human  behavior. 

This  expert  should  have  needed  assistance  and  entire  freedom  in 
studying  cases  both  in  the  laboratory  and  from  the  point  of  view  of 
previous  training  and  conduct.  His  chief  function  would  be  experi- 
mentation and  research.  From  the  practical  point  of  view  he  would 
probably  find  three  classes,  viz.:  1,  the  feeble-minded;  2,  those  who 
have  committed  crime  through  circumstances  not  likely  to  recur  and 
3,  those  who  because  of  peculiar  mental  traits  or  habituation  are  cer- 
tain to  continue  in  crime.  For  the  third  class  the  psychologist  or  the 
educator  could  offer  little  if  any  hope  of  social  freedom.  Classes  1  and 
2  are  more  hopeful  of  reform.  The  problem  here  would  be  to  differ- 
entiate those  who  are  mentally  so  constituted,  by  nature  or  by  previous 
training,  that  they  would  be  amenable  to  education  or  re-education 
from  those  who,  while  falling  into  these  two  classes,  would  nevertheless 
not  be  suitable  subjects  for  reform  and  parole. 

The  feeble-minded  should  not  be  in  prison,  but  since  they  are 
there,  without  immediate  hope  of  elimination,  and  since  parole  with 
this  class  of  persons  has  in  a  measure  proven  successful,  it  would 


A  Study  of  49  Female  Convicts  351 

seem  advisable  for  prison  administration  to  begin  short  sentence  and 
early  parole  with  persons  of  comparative  low  intelligence.  Innova- 
tions, however,  in  the  interest  of  greater  efficiency  on  the  part  of  penal 
institutions  should  be  made  only  when  there  is  practical  assurance 
of  success.  Propagandas  for  the  better  care  and  protection  of  the 
feeble-minded  has  brought  about  a  more  intelligent  attitude  toward 
delinquency,  and  society  is  much  interested  but  it  is,  at  the  same  time, 
skeptical  of  ideas  sympathetic  toward  criminals.  Under  such  condi- 
tions practical  demonstration  that  present  ineffectual  penal  methods 
can  in  part  be  replaced  by  better  ones  that  are  remedial  and  reforma- 
tory would  tend  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  general  public  and  con- 
sequently bring  support  for  more  improvements  and  reforms. 

SUMMARY 

I..  Fourteen  or  28.5  per  cent  of  the  49  cases  studied  have  an 
intelligence  quotient  below  .70  and  are  therefore  definitely  feeble- 
minded, fifteen' \est  between  .70  and  .75  and  are  probably  feeble- 
minded, (10>br  20.4  per  cent  test  between  .75  and  .80  and  are  border- 
line; 43  or  87.7  per  cent  are  either  borderline  or  feeble-minded;  6  or 
12.2  per  cent  are  normal. 

II.  Formal  education  is  below  average,  50  per  cent  having  left 
school  before  reaching  the  fifth  grade  and  only  6  per  cent  having 
entered  high  school. 

III.  Twenty-six  or  53  per  cent  have  committed  crimes  calculated 
to  take  human  life ;  47  per  cent  have  committed  crimes  chiefly  against 
property. 

IV.  Eighteen  or  36.7  per  cent  of  the  49  cases  are  recidivists,  two- 
thirds  of  whom  have  served  terms  in  jail,  one-third  in  the  penitentiary. 

V.  38.7  per  cent  have  committed  crime  because  of  feeble-minded- 
ness,  49  per  cent  because  of  circumstances,  8.1  per  cent  because  of 
peculiar  mental  traits,  4  per  cent  because   of  insanity. 

VI.  Occupations  of  the  prisoners  have  been  chiefly  house-work 
and  unskilled  activities. 

VII.  Negroes  probably  commit  crime   from  impulse  more  fre- 
quently than  do  white  women  but  low  intelligence  is  responsible  for 
lack  of  impulsive  control. 

VIII.  For  the   grade   of  delinquents   presented   in   this   study 
colony-parole  is  suggested  as  the  most  effective  solution. 


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